What Judaism Tells you Аbout Clinical Depression?

“We Americans are insane. Eleven p.m. every night, we snuggle up, ready for bed, and what’s the last thing we do? We switch on the evening news. Thirty minutes of murder, brutality, corruption, catastrophe, moral lunacy, sports and weather. Good night. And then in the morning we are awakened by a clock radio set to some news station. And we begin the day with…murder, brutality, corruption, catastrophe, moral lunacy, sports and weather. And you want to know why you’re depressed?”

Rabbi Ed Feinstein

Depression in Torah

While the Torah does not address depression directly, it does refer to the state of being man or woman should exist in. A person should not be so troubled and despondent that they are incapable of feeling their connection to the divine. By extension, medicine that aids the body and the mind to find succor and to function is important, but not if the medicine so obliterates the pain and connection to reality that they cannot experience the wonder of the divine. In other words, some sadness is natural, but when depression is a medical condition and creates an inability to function, seeking medical help is advised.

Judaism doesn’t work like a drug that blots out pain. Judaism acknowledges the reality of sorrow in this world. The Bible itself offers poignant examples of depressed individuals. Saul, the first king of Israel, suffers excruciating fits of melancholy. He loves his protégé, David, but is also desperately jealous of him, and he fears the people around him are plotting against him. Periodically he sinks into black despair and fits of rage.

King Saul got some relief from melancholy when David played his harp. This story is interpreted as evidence that external measure – including therapy, medication, physical exercise, making art or listening to music – can help to alleviate the pain of depression.

Elijah, the lonely prophet of the book of First Kings, is rejected by his society and feels that his work has been a failure. At the lowest point of his life he flees into the wilderness, sits down under a tree and prays for his own death. “Enough!” he cries. “Please, G-d, take my life, for I am no better than my fathers” [1 Ki.19:4].

Jonah, another misunderstood prophet, is frustrated with God and humanity alike; he, too, begs G-d to take his life and put him out of his misery. And the Book of Psalms, the most personal book in the Bible, expresses the full range of human despair at the sorrows of this world.

Historical Perspectives

Jews come from a tradition that doesn’t encourage escapism. It forces them to acknowledge the pain, injustice and strife all around, and simultaneously cultivates an intense yearning for justice, goodness and peace. Since the World around is far from being perfect, this combination inevitably produces dissatisfaction with the world. Dissatisfaction is a necessary religious trait for Jews. It’s the engine that motivates them to want to change the world and make it better.

However, while dissatisfaction with the world is essential to a Jewish life, sadness and depression are not. In fact, our tradition sees sadness as the enemy of the good life, the very antithesis of the life Judaism tries to bring about. The Torah itself commands happiness; it is a religious obligation for Jews, as stated in the book of Deuteronomy: “You shall rejoice in all the good that G-d has given you” [Dt.26:11].

In 12^th century Spain, Yehudah Halevi taught: “It is not in accordance with the spirit of the Torah to worry and feel anguish throughout one’s life; one who does so transgresses God’s commandment to be content with what you have been given…” In the 19^th century, Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch wrote that “Judaism never considered pain, sorrow, self-affliction or sadness to be valid goals. The opposite is true – one should pursue happiness, bliss, cheer, joy and delight.” And Rabbi Nachman of Bratzlav who, you’ll recall, struggled all his life with depression, is famous among Hasidim for his great teaching: “Mitzvah gedolah lihiyot b’simcha tamid – it is a great mitzvah to be ever joyful, and to overcome feelings of sorrow and melancholy” [Likkutei Etzot, Joy 30].

Jewish tradition endorses modern therapeutic techniques such as cognitive behavioral therapy, which is based on the idea that overcoming negative patterns of thought can alter the way we feel and act. Jewish ethical writing, starting in the middle ages, argues that we need not be victims of our emotions, but can discipline ourselves to acquire positive attitudes and feelings. In fact, the Baal Shem Tov, the founder of Hasidism, pointed out that if we rearrange the letters of the Hebrew word for “thought” – machshavah – we get the word “b’simcha – with joy,” teaching us that we can often combat depression by changing the way we think.

Depression Types

A certain amount of depression in life is natural when depression refers to the sadness and anxiety associated with living. Mourning, for example, is a time when the heart and the mind can be depressed. In Judaism, rituals for observing death and mourning such as sitting shiva for the departed help assuage grief. Judaism's extended community also creates a very real support system that is vital for overcoming the psychological wear and tear of loneliness, depression and anxiety.

Depression Sources

A common source of unhappiness is unachieved goals. This can lead to low self esteem which may doom one to more failures, further erosion of self esteem, causing a downward spiral into the abyss of sorrow. One can prevent this vicious cycle by setting realistic goals from the outset. If sadness has already settled in, one can stop the snowball effect by setting short-term, easy goals that bolster ones confidence and in turn empower one to achieve longer-term, more significant goals. This will initiate an upward spiral to level ground.

Another source of sorrow is feeling that we don’t have everything we want. On this our Sages taught, "Who is truly wealthy? One, who is content with his portion." A poor man once complained to the Maggid of Mezritch about his poverty. The Maggid sent him to Rebbe Zusha of Anipoli for advice. Rebbe Zusha, who himself suffered dire poverty and poor health, questioned in all sincerity, "I don’t know why the Maggid sent you to me, I’ve got everything I need".

Also, we often get depressed about bad things that happen. Contemplating the good in the bad helps mitigate ones melancholy. King David’s son Avshalom rebelled against him, forcing him to flee: "David ascended the Mount of Olives, weeping as he went" (II Samuel 15:30). Nevertheless, David concluded that it’s better the rebel be his son because another man would have killed him. In the end, not only did he not despair, he began to sing: "A psalm of David when he fled from Avshalom his son" (Psalms 3:1).

Finally, one must realize that everything is from G-d for the ultimate good. An observer unfamiliar with surgery would consider it a most terrible act. The surgeon however understands it’s for the patients good, sometimes saving his life. Ultimately there can always be a sudden turn-around. Abraham and Sara suffered being barren for a long time until unexpectedly they were blessed with a child who fathered the entire Jewish nation.

Judaism and Anti-depressants

Some medications that treat depression can influence a person's ability to experience emotions naturally. According to more conservative traditional views, if a person subsists on medication that inhibits their connection to G-d, then he or she should discontinue. Someone who was taking anti-depressants asked since while depressed he used to pray with tears but now the medication makes it harder for him to feel the same connection to G-d, perhaps he should stop taking the medicine. Rabbeinu Yonah (Spain, 1200-1263) addressed this issue some 800 years ago: "Although there is a beneficial aspect to sadness it prevents people from becoming overly joyous over the pleasures of this world nevertheless one should not pursue the state of sadness, since it is a physical disease. When a person is despondent, he is not able to serve his Creator properly." While it is admirable that this person initially used his depression to feel close to G-d, clearly G-d prefers that he face the new challenge of finding spirituality as a healthy person. The medicines the rabbi likely referred to involved hallucinogens, opiates and other medicines designed to disconnect mind and body and not pharmaceutical medications to treat clinical depression.

The modern position on the anti-depressants use is clear: If your doctor is reliable and he/she has prescribed anti-depressants, you should certainly take them. Modern Judaism accepts the point of view that depression is like any other illness and needs to be treated with the correct medication. A person suffering clinical depression needs competent treatment. It is wrong to tell him “Just pull yourself together,” just as it would be cruel to tell a drowning person “Just pull yourself together.” This is adding insult to injury.

Sources and Additional Information:

http://www.ehow.com/about_4740361_judaism-depression.html

http://www.betham.org/sermons/marder041105.html

http://ohr.edu/this_week/ask_the_rabbi/1149

http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1472060/jewish/Why-Did-G-d-Give-Me-Depression.htm

http://www.vosizneias.com/50538/2010/03/03/new-york-understanding-depression-in-the-jewish-population

Spiritual Causes of Depression through Eyes of Christians

“Spiritual” causes of depression are in some ways as speculative as psychological or even physiological explanations. Just as there are currently no way to exactly measure brain chemistry, there are no ways for us to “see” all of what is happening spiritually within a person. Many of the spiritual causes of depression are essentially refined or redefined versions of psychological causes. For example, instead of talking about behavior, Christians talk about sin. In the area of cognition Christians emphasize not only one’s faulty view of oneself, but also a faulty view of God and his character. Finally, while secular psychology recognizes a distinction between body and mind, Christians should have a proper understanding of both the distinctions and interrelations between the human body and soul.

The Biblical point of view

What does the Bible say about depression? Little or nothing! It provides no support to those who become truly depressed from whatever cause. Paul went through terrible trials (2 Cor. 11:22-30) yet there is not a glimmer of depression in his letters. Indeed Paul instructs Christians to "Rejoice always in the Lord" (Philip.4:4), and so important is this that he repeats it "Again I say rejoice"! Two verses later again he instructs "Be anxious for nothing". Only a few verses further on he gives clear directives for the sound Christian life; "Whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things are noble...if there is any virtue, and if there is anything praiseworthy, think on these things."

Thus the Christian is instructed to have a very positive mind set. Therefore, is it not obvious that the Christian who sinks into despair and despondency for whatever cause is actually disobeying the Bible's clear requirements. He is NOT fixing his eyes upon Jesus and the glorious hope of the future that is a continual refrain in the Bible. Read Philip. 4:4-13 and check if those who are depressed are obeying God's word to mankind.

There is also little about depression in the Old Testament. Asaph was despondent when he saw the lives of the rich until he went into the House of the Lord! There he took a step back from his personal viewpoint and saw it all from God's long term plan - and his heart was lifted (Ps. 73:1-17).

David was persecuted by King Saul and felt low at times. But on one such time, he asks "Why are you cast down, O my soul?" (Psalm 42:5) Notice that this is a question, implying that the heart had no business in being cast down. He then gives his heart the very positive instruction "Hope in God.." Thus, his reaction to depression was exactly the same as Asaph's - a drawing back from his own little viewpoint and looking towards God and seeing life from His perspective. What may seem to be an exception, in Ps. 6:6 David calls upon the Lord to rebuke his troublesome enemies. But this is not the usual long term depression. David was a fighter against great odds and he knew the Lord was with him.

So, while very few episodes in Bible are clearly identified as depression, there are plenty of others, more inferred based on their responses to situations. Jeremiah, in the book of Lamentations, expresses deep pain and agony of the soul: “Is it nothing to you, all you who pass by? Look and see if there is any sorrow like my sorrow, which was brought upon me” (Lam. 1:12). One of the most familiar passages is Psalm 42-43.  Psalm 42 begins with, “As the deer pants for the water brooks, so my soul pants for You, O God” (42:1), and continues with:

“Why are you in despair, O my soul?

And why have you become disturbed within me?

…

O my God, my soul is in despair within me” (Psalm 42:5-6)

The phrase “Why are you in despair, O my soul?” is repeated at the end of Psalm 42 and again in Psalm 43. Some authors have also suggested that Job, Saul, Elijah and even Jesus in the desert showed signs of depression.

Depression can be more difficult to deal with in Christian circles because the expectations for “life and life abundant” is much higher and because of emotional ties particular theological positions. Just as scientists have biases toward exclusively physiological explanations of depression and psychologists towards exclusively psychological explanations, Christians often gravitate toward interpreting all events in spiritual terms. While it is true that “our battle is not against flesh and blood,” Christians should also keep in mind that the physical world is real and that simple explanations are often incomplete.

Christian Thinking

Admitted many theological and biblical discussions have little or no bearing on one’s life. But in the area of depression, the Christian’s thought life plays a major role. The cognitive theory of depression in psychology has done much to help explain the significance of many of Paul’s charges such as “taking every thought captive” (2 Cor. 10:5), “if there is anything excellent or praiseworthy – think about such things” (Phil. 4:9), and to have the mind of Christ (1 Cor. 2:16).

The two most common areas of faulty Christian thinking are one’s view of oneself and one’s view of God. The generalizing events are often applied to specifically Christian ideas such as, “I sinned in area X, therefore I must be an evil person, unworthy of God.” False doctrine, especially in the area of salvation, may also play a critical role. If one incorrectly believes that is possible to lose one’s salvation, he or she may experience depression from anxiety.

Many Christians also develop faulty views of God which can result in depression. Often Christian’s project onto God their own false expectations of themselves or false expectations placed upon them by parents or teachers. In his discussion of Psalm 13:1-6, Neil Anderson says, “Even though he believes in God, David is depressed because what he believes about God is not true. How can an omnipotent and omniscient God forget about David for even one minute, much less forever?”  Depressed people also tend to feel abandoned by God, characterized by David’s words, “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” (Ps. 22:1). “Does God abandon God’s people? No. Do people with depression feel that God has abandoned them? Yes?”

Sin and Depression

No other cause of depression should be as carefully discussed as that of sin. Unfortunately, the stigma in society at large surrounding mental illnesses is heightened rather than lessened in the Christian discussion. But at the same time, sin is very real and very harmful. Often depressed people are characterized by irrational guilt and shame, yet those that fail to deal with habitual sin often fall further and further into depression.

Consider the following statement, “Compassion cannot ignore unbelief or son. Too often, family and friends think the depressed person is very fragile and cannot handle any frank discussion about sin or hard-heartedness. But to ignore these issues when they are obvious in someone’s life is to treat that person without love or compassion.” Some might consider this approach too harsh, while others might consider it too soft. Either way, assuming that sin alone is the cause and cure of depression is probably no more helpful than assuming that medical treatments alone can cure depression. But ignoring sin is equally unhelpful.

Spiritual Warfare

 In C.S. Lewis’s The Screwtape Letters, an elder demon Screwtape writes lessons to his nephew Wormwood on how to cause the most damage to his human “student.” Screwtape suggests to Wormwood that his most successful course of action is either to cause his student to think about demons and the spiritual realm so much that it causes him to obsess and fear it or to ensure that his student never thinks about spiritual things and remains woefully ignorant on the matter. While it is true that those who do emphasize demonic activity often go to extremes, others tend to react too strongly against such overemphasis and ignore or downplay the reality of spiritual realm and its affects on our lives. As is true elsewhere, a balanced approach is vital.

Biblically, there is a good deal of support for the idea that demons can cause mental and spiritual depression. Job experienced severe ailments, both physical and spiritual, and it is very clear that God allowed Satan to directly cause the problems. Saul was tormented by “a demon sent from God” (1 Sam. 19:19). Jesus cast demons out of many people during his ministry on earth. Even Paul was sent a “messenger from Satan” (2 Cor. 12:7).

Similar to any of the other causes of depression, spiritual warfare may or may not play a role in a particular individual’s depression. And if it does play a role, it is probably one of several factors that should be considered.

How should a Christian treat depression?

Christians tend to look for the real cause of depression in themselves, not relying entirely on the theoretical medical causes proposed by psychiatrists/psychologists. There are some stages of depression that are considered common to all cases.

1. The person records the progress of his "illness" in some detail, from childhood to recovery.


2. They are told by their doctor/psychiatrist that they are "ill" with depression.


3. This is attributed to "a chemical imbalance" - usually serotonin.


4. They express their great gratitude and relief for this "discovery" as they can now offload their sense of guilt for their condition and can blame something over which they can have no control and therefore cannot be held responsible for: They have got an "illness".


5. They are prescribed drugs that lift their mood.


6. However, they still realize that there is something not right, and begin to take positive steps to get back to normal.


7. Eventually they are well on their way to becoming normal people - with or without the drugs.


8. At the end they understand the certain attitudes to life that are far from normal and that might lead to the illness on the first place - attention seeking, excessive fear of what others are thinking of them, perfectionism, etc. Some admit that they were mainly to blame for their depression.


9. They realize that they are now a much stronger person than they were before their depression.


10. Most admit that they were glad they had gone through their experience because they had learnt so much more about themselves and now had a changed, more relaxed, attitude to life.

So, how should the Christian deal with his depression?

1. If the root problem is self-centeredness, then the answer is obvious; he must begin to take a real interest in other people and their circumstances. This must be a genuine interest, and not one that is seeking to obtain their approval. There are many passages in the Bible that tell us to put others before ourselves (Eph. 2:3-4, Heb.12:11-14.)


2. The Bible never says that life - Christian or otherwise - will be smooth and trouble free. When we realize this, we must stand up to the problems of life, no matter how big they may be. They are sent to strengthen us and test how strong our Christian faith truly is (James 1:2-4). For the Christian, he should never forget that no matter how bad the circumstances may seem to him, he must never ever forget that ultimately, God is in complete control of all events. Whatever happens, he must never run away from the problem(s) but must deal with them in a mature Christian way; no other attitude is honoring to God.


3. Any tendency to mope and have a "pity party" must be firmly resisted. An active, loving and outgoing life must be maintained - irrespective of how we feel.


4. Realize that you can't base life on your emotions. Christians base life on truth, not emotions. Philippians 4:1 commands us to rejoice (whether we feel like it or not!). And James 1:2 asks us to “Consider it all joy when we fall into various trials.” Notice that James doesn't tell us to feel joyful; he tells us to reckon, to choose to think about your situation as a spot where you can have joy. This question of feelings is very important. The Bible never tells us to do the right thing "if and when we feel like doing it." It is very clear indeed that we must do good things for others whether we feel like doing them or not. This includes doing the mundane things we all have to do at times. Let us do them all to the glory of God. You can be absolutely sure that the good feelings will come in due time once you have trained yourself to do what is right in the first place. This can take six weeks to retrain the autonomic nervous system so that we have a better set of habits that become part of us.


5. Heed God's Advice. However, many people talk about “faith” and only mean a vague hope that God will somehow pull them through. That's too nebulous a concept to be reliable. Many of the same people who claim to have faith keep plunging through life ignoring God's principles for healthy living. If we spurn the good advice that the Bible contains, we won't escape the consequences - even if we have faith.


6. There is one physical thing that can be done that is far more effective than any medication. Tests have shown the very positive benefits of doing regular (fairly hard) exercise! This gets the whole body working more normally. It lifts depression and if it is followed by a warm shower, then the resulting glow over the whole body gives a further uplift and positive sense of well-being.

Sources and Additional Information:

http://www.basictheology.com/articles/An_Introduction_to_Depression/4/

http://www.mbowden.surf3.net/depression.htm

http://www.christiananswers.net/q-acb/acb-f001.html

http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2009/march/15.22.html

http://www.bible.ca/f-Depression.htm

Buddhism on Depression: Religious, Psychological, and Cultural Perspectives

Introductions

Depression can come in various forms, from a passing blue mood to a severe psychological condition like major depression or manic-depressive illness, which require extensive treatment. The more serious conditions require professional help with for example intensive therapy or medication, there seems to be no easy way to avoid that. General psychology has determined that depressive disorders are often caused by a combination of genetic, psychological and environmental factors, but can also be caused by other illnesses. Women experience depressive disorders twice as many as men, and hormone levels appear to have a significant influence.

Please note that this page deals mainly with aspects of the 'lighter' forms of depression, the techniques described here should not be considered in any way to replace professional treatment for a serious psychological condition. However, the discussed techniques may help to avoid the recurrence of depression, once one has come out of the 'black hole' again.

Buddhism generally approaches depression from a quite different viewpoint than modern Western psychology. The Buddhist perspective is that an underlying selfishness/egotism is often the basic cause of feeling depressed. Please realize that if this is upsetting you, basically this is considered the main psychological problem that everyone has according to Buddhist psychology, and depression can be an unexpected result of it. Also, this does not mean that the suffering person should be 'blamed' for the condition, but rather opens up a very different approach to the problem using meditation and emphasis on compassion and loving-kindness. Even though these methods may neither be quick nor instantly effective, negative side effects are virtually unheard of; and who cannot use a bit of emphasis on loving-kindness?

A very interesting aspect of reflection on compassion and love is the point that we need to respect, forgive and have compassion not only for others, but ourselves as well.

One of the causes for depression can be a strong sense of dissatisfaction with ourselves; perhaps the page on lack of self-confidence could be helpful? In modern society, it appears that only 'being number one' counts, but this leaves out the other 6 billion people, including 'me'. Does that mean that I am worthless? Of course not!

Just look at the other end of the scale: many of our so-called great heroes of the past are admired for their power, courage and intelligence, but how many heroes can you think of that actually made it a point to create happiness and security instead of waging war and creating havoc? Simply being a loving and caring person tends to help the world a lot more than being 'number one'. One may admire pop-idols and movie stars, but many of them are (or will be) in a sorry state, addicted to drugs and 'life in the fast lane'; not understanding that happiness is a state of their own mind, not of their bank account, level of drugs, availability of sex etc.

If we can genuinely wish ourselves happiness and radiate that wish to others, our state of mind can change dramatically. If we change our mind, we can change our mood - a simple process, but not easy to achieve quickly. One of the most important things is to understand that we can change our own mind if we make a bit of an effort. If we would not be able to change anything in our mind, how did we ever learn to read and write?

Andrew Solomon wrote in 'Anatomy of Melancholy':

"When you are depressed, the past and the future are absorbed entirely by the present, as in the world of a three-year-old. You can neither remember feeling better nor imagine that you will feel better. Being upset, even profoundly upset, is a temporal experience, whereas depression is atemporal. Depression means that you have no point of view."

When we are in such a state, we probably need more than what is described below, but once we can see the way out again, it is possible to work on a more permanent change of our mind.

The great Buddhist sage Nagarjuna said:

If there is a remedy when trouble strikes,

What reason is there for despondency?

And if there is no help for it,

What is the use of being sad?

So come what may, I'll never harm

My cheery happiness of mind.

Depression never brings me what I want;

My virtue will be warped and marred by it.

Openness can be another key factor: 'miracles' do happen when we stop resisting them, because although the result can appear miraculous, our mind changes continuously, and our minds can only be changed by ourselves. Sincerely trying to help others is probably the best cure when we really feel sorry for ourselves. But if we are not mindful of ourselves and others, helping others can lead to Burnout, see this small part in the compassion page. So the Buddhist approach of study and meditation emphasizes taking control over our own mind and directing it into more positive habits.

From notes on a teaching by His Holiness the Dalai Lama:

"There was an empirical study that found that people who have the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I, me, myself) tend to have more health problems and earlier deaths (the Dalai Lama had heard this the day before from another speaker in neurology at a symposium on Buddhism and meditation in New York City). These people have more involvement with the self. Being self-absorbed has an immediate effect of narrowing one's focus and blurring one's vision. It is like being pressed down by a heavy load. If, on the other hand, you think more about others' well-being, it immediately makes you feel more expansive, liberated and free. Problems which before may have seemed enormous would then seem more manageable."

The following message appeared in a Buddhist discussion forum, where self-centeredness was discussed as a possible important factor in depression:

"Having myself experienced extreme, regularly to the point of suicidal, depression, I think I can understand your point of view at least to a certain extent. But on the notion of self-centeredness, I'm afraid I have to agree. From my own experience, coming through a massive clinical depression and coming through to the other end, cured, I believe self-centeredness to be the very cause of depression. And not just depression, but every ailment in the world as we know it. The irony is, I can only see this NOW, with hindsight, looking back at my mind state when I was depressed: "ego all the way, me me me, MY problems, MY depression, MY past, MY MY MY MY..." That very self-absorbed, self-centered fascination with my own ego and its agenda mind state is exactly what kept me trapped in that depression for so long. It's only when I started to consider that maybe -- just maybe -- as one of the 6 BILLION people on this plant, other people had problems FAR WORSE than mine, that the clouds began to part. And when I realized that I was being very selfish and WASTING my life in a state of -- excuse me, but there are few better terms -- mental masturbation.

All I was doing was feeding my ego, indulging its little whims and woes, and feeling sorry for myself. What was I doing for humanity? Nothing. And yes, that is self-centredness in its highest -- or should I say lowest -- form.



Of course, the great curse of the ever-nourished ego -- the root of all depression -- is that when you're IN that state, you CAN'T SEE it for what it is. It's like the people stuck in the Matrix (the film). They wouldn't believe it if you told them they were living in a dream. You have to wake up for yourself, then you see it."

Joshua Bryer

From Working with Anger by Thubten Chodron:

"We often focus on a few circumstances in our life that aren't going well instead of all those that are. Although we all have problems, when we over-emphasize their importance, we easily begin thinking that we are incapable and worthless. Such self-hatred immobilizes us and prevents us from developing our good qualities and sharing them with others.

When we look at the broad picture, however, we can see many positive things in our life. We can rejoice that we are alive and appreciate whatever degree of good health we have. We also have food (often too much!), shelter, clothing, medicine, friends, relatives, and a myriad of good circumstances. Many of the people reading this book live in peaceful places, not in war-torn areas. Many have jobs they like, and family and friends they appreciate. We shouldn't take these for granted. Most importantly, from a spiritual viewpoint, we have access to an authentic path, qualified teachers to guide us, and kind companions who encourage us. We have genuine spiritual aspirations and the time to cultivate these. Thinking about these good conditions one by one, we will be filled with joy, and any sense of being incapable and hopeless will vanish."

Similarly, the Buddha himself said:

"We are shaped by our thoughts; we become what we think.

When the mind is pure, joy follows like a shadow that never leaves."

Driving Ourselves Crazy

With most problematic states of mind, and certainly with depression, we often have a tendency to maintain the problem by self-confirmation. What I mean with that is often repeating to oneself things like "I am depressed", "I feel miserable", "Life sucks", "They are bad", "I hate myself", "I can't do it". The problem is that when we repeat this often enough, it will all come true! These kind of self-obsessive thoughts blind us to the needs of our family and friends, and we do nothing to help them. As a result, we receive less positive feedback and love from them, and also less simple satisfaction and joy of making them happy.

In Buddhism, we use meditation to improve our state of mind by habituating ourselves to a positive state of mind, but repeating the above sort of tantrums throughout the day will only keep us in the same negative state. Just imagine what happens if a perfectly happy woman suddenly starts saying to herself "I feel miserable, I hate myself" once every five minutes...

Instead, positive affirmations can have a strong therapeutic effect; "I love my family", "I don't need to grow hungry", "Other people are much worse off than me", "I can help others", "I am OK".

So a simple technique is to forbid yourself using the word 'depressed' and your standard negative expressions, but replace them with more positive phrases. It takes quite a bit of mindfulness in the beginning, but with a bit of persistence you can talk yourself into a better mood!

From Ven. Thubten Gyatso:

"Should you flush your Valium and Prozac down the toilet? No, not yet. Begin with small actions to help others - empty the garbage can without being asked, clean up your own mess in the kitchen, polish the shoes of others. Smile occasionally. Gradually build up the courage and determination to confront your self-cherishing mind and declare yourself a slave and friend of all living beings. Then you will extract more joy from cleaning up somebody else's mess in the kitchen than you will ever get from watching television. Not only will this lift your depression, it will place you on the path to bliss."

Excerpt from Lama Yeshe's talk at VajraYogini Institute, France, September 5, 1983:

"In Western cities nowadays, you can see, the older you are the more problems you have. When we are young, not so many problems, but then there are drugs and sex, and eventually they become dissatisfying, then more depression, more depression. So, as your body becomes bigger and your brain becomes wider, you have more and more problems and become more and more depressed. The more money you have the more problems come. You can see this.

You only take care of your body, you never take care of your mind, and the result of this imbalance is depression. For most western people this is the case: only the body is reality and they don't care about the existence of the mind, the soul, the consciousness. They don't believe they can change their minds. They can change their nose through an operation, but they don't believe they can change their mind. And when you believe this, then no way can you resolve your depression.

Our thoughts, our mind or consciousness are mental energy and cannot be localized in the body. It cannot be touched; it has no form and does not travel in time and space. We cannot touch it or grasp it.

What is important to understand is that the view you have of yourself and the view you have of your environment are based on your own mind; they are the projection of your mind and that is why they are not reality."

Twenty-Four Brand-New Hours (By Thich Nhat Hanh)

Every morning, when we wake up, we have twenty-four brand-new hours to live. What a precious gift! We have the capacity to live in a way that these twenty-four hours will bring peace, joy, and happiness to ourselves and others.

Peace is present right here and now, in ourselves and in everything we do and see. The Question is whether or not we are in touch with it. We don't have to travel far away to enjoy the blue sky. We don't have to leave our city or even our neighborhood to enjoy the eyes of a beautiful child. Even the air we breathe can be a source of joy.

We can smile, breathe, walk, and eat our meals in a way that allows us to be in touch with the abundance of happiness that is available. We are very good at preparing to live, but not very good at living. We know how to sacrifice ten years for a diploma, and we are willing to work very hard to get a job, a car, a house, and so on. But we have difficulty remembering that we are alive at the present moment, the only moment there is for us to be alive.

Every breath we take, every step we make, can be filled with peace, joy, and serenity. We need only to be awake, alive in the present moment. ...

PRAYER FOR FREEDOM FROM SUFFERING

May all beings everywhere plagued

with sufferings of body and mind

quickly be freed from their illnesses.

May those frightened cease to be afraid,

and may those bound be free.

May the powerless find power,

and may people think of befriending each other.

May those who find themselves in trackless, fearful wilderness--

the children, the aged, the unprotected--

be guarded by beneficent celestials,

and may they swiftly attain Buddhahood.

The Buddha

Transforming Depression  (by Lama Zopa Rinpoche)

The best solution to purify the karma of having depression is to do the purification practice of Vajrasattva. As long as the karma isn't purified, you'll continue to suffer from depression again in future lives.

Maybe you wake up in the morning feeling depressed for no particular reason. If you can't solve this problem through meditation it might help to just go to sleep, or go somewhere to rest, or take a nice drive somewhere. Otherwise you'll get upset, disturbing the people around you as well. When you're angry, all sorts of bad, uncontrolled thoughts can come into your mind.

If you're depressed due to a certain situation then you can apply the meditation techniques that relate to that particular set of conditions. But if you just feel sad for no particular reason, it's best to practice bodhicitta.

You can recite the verse from the Guru Puja,

"Please bless me to realize that the disease of the self cherishing thought is the door to unwanted suffering."

Blame the demon, the self-cherishing thought, for your problem of depression.

Then recite the next verse,

"Bless me to realize that cherishing others, bodhicitta, the attitude that leads all mother living beings to happiness, is the door to every excellent quality."

Another quote from Guru Puja is,

"Even if all living beings become my enemy, may I cherish them more than my life."

It's very good if you can recite these verses daily, especially when you feel depressed. Then you'll be using your depression to practice the meaning of these two verses; that all problems and suffering come from cherishing the 'I', therefore the I is the object to be renounced, to be given up. All your own and others' happiness, including all the realizations up to enlightenment- all perfections and happiness come from cherishing others- bodhicitta.

Because all these good things come from the attitude of cherishing others, they depend on other living beings. Therefore living beings are to be cherished forever. You need to repay the kindness of all these precious beings, to help them however you can. How best to do this? They've been millionaires countless times, they've even been universal kings but none of this power or wealth has freed them from the sufferings of samsara. The best way to repay their kindness is to practice Lamrim, to transform the mind from ignorance, attachment and self-cherishing into wholesome, pure thoughts. By actualizing the path to enlightenment you can easily liberate other beings. Therefore the best way to repay their kindness is to meditate on and develop bodhicitta in your own mind.

Taking

Every living being is the source of all your past, present, future happiness. Generate compassion by thinking, "I'll take all their suffering and its causes (afflictive emotions and negative karmic imprints) including the fires of the hot hells, the ice of the cold hells and the unpleasant, unhealthy, ugly, unpeaceful and polluted environments of human beings into my heart." This eliminates the self-cherishing attitude. Once the self-cherishing attitude has been destroyed do a short meditate on emptiness.

Giving

After the self-cherishing has been destroyed, generate love by giving your own happiness, your merit, all the good things you have, including your body, wealth and possessions. All their wishes are fulfilled as if they had a wish-granting jewel. By giving them all these things you create unbelievable amounts of merit. You can recite mantra while they're receiving everything they want and need. Actually they don't know they really need. What they need is to meet the dharma. But if they don't understand the benefits of the dharma, they want something other than dharma.

Receiving all these good things causes them to actualize the spiritual path, to purify the two obscurations (to liberation and enlightenment). They achieve the Rupakaya (the form bodies of a Buddha) and become enlightened. Think, "How wonderful it is that I can do all this for others! I've died many times in past lives while working for my own happiness, but it didn't accomplish anything. I'm still in samsara. I've never died while working for others. Even if I have to die for the benefit of others, for them to stop creating negative karma, to not be reborn in the lower realms and for their minds to become the dharmakaya and Rupakaya and enlightened, it would be immensely worthwhile."

Mediate on the extensive kindness and precious of all beings. "Every living being is the source of all my past, present, future hap. My own future Buddha, Dharma and Sangha come from purifying my negative karma enabling me to attain all the realizations and to achieve enlightenment. All this happens on the basis of other beings. Therefore every sentient being is the most precious thing in my life. Anything other than working for living beings is totally meaningless." This includes experiencing depression for them. There's nothing to work for other than sentient beings. Anything else is totally meaningless. Experience depression on their behalf by thinking this isn't my depression but the depression of numberless beings, this is their depression, their suffering. To give them every happiness; including freedom all the sufferings of cyclic existence and the bliss of full enlightenment is fantastic!

Feel the joy of it! This is their depression, so the most wonderful thing would be to experience it for them and allow all those suffering from depression to have every happiness. Then rejoice that you have this opportunity to experience this problem of depression on their behalf. "How fantastic it is that I'm experiencing this depression on behalf of all beings!"

Do this practice of tonglen (taking and giving) in the morning, afternoon and evening.

Think again and again, "How lucky I am that I can experience this depression for them. I've made many prayers to take others' suffering onto myself, so now those prayers are being actualized. How fantastic this is! It makes my life so rich, so meaningful! How fortunate I am to experience this depression on behalf of all living beings."

Think about the meaning of your life, a psychological method that makes a huge difference because much of the problem comes from your exaggerated concept of pain. It's possible to reduce or completely eliminate pain with the mind. "The purpose of my life isn't just to be healthy, wealthy, to have a good reputation, to be popular and have lots of friends. Even if I had all these things, it isn't the actual purpose of my life. Even if I live for 1,000 years or am perfectly healthy for eons, if I don't have love and compassion in my heart my life it's meaningless and useless because my life isn't benefiting others. Leading such a life would be empty. Therefore it doesn't matter what happens; if in my life there's health or no health; depression or no depression; cancer or no cancer, wealth or no wealth. The real purpose of my life is to make my death beneficial for others. Even if I have cancer, I'll make that experience beneficial for all beings by using it to develop compassion and bodhicitta, to achieve realizations and enlightenment." In this way the cancer becomes the cause of happiness. Depression can also be used to achieve enlightenment to benefit all beings in this and future lives, especially all those who suffer from depression- just like using snake venom to produce it's own anti-venom.

You're using your depression to achieve enlightenment. In this way it becomes the cause of happiness for all sentient beings experiencing depression. Think, "The main purpose of life is to benefit all living beings, to free them from suffering and bring them happiness in this and future lives. Even if I have cancer, aids, depression or whatever, the purpose of my life is to bring happiness to all sentient beings by experiencing these problems on their behalf." In this way depression becomes a quick way to achieve enlightenment. The same with cancer. Use it to quickly achieve enlightenment. If it's experienced for the benefit of others it becomes the quick path to enlightenment because experiencing suffering for others is incredible, unbelievable purification. This is excellent!

There was one monk in Thailand who was walking around the country. He came across a big river. On the banks of the river was a woman with leprosy, with pus oozing out of her sores. She begged the monk to carry her across the river. He refused, on the basis that his monk's vows prevented him from touching women. After some time one of the monk's disciples came along and when he saw the poor woman, unbelievable compassion arose in his mind. Without hesitation he picked her up and carried her across the river, even though her body was covered with open wounds. When he reached the middle of the river the woman transformed into Vajra Yogini and took him - not just his consciousness, but also his body, to Vajra Yogini's Pure Land. This means that by now this monk has attained full enlightenment, because anyone who goes to Vajra Yogini's Pure Land is enlightened there. Being in a Pure Land is a quick way to achieve enlightenment if it hasn't yet happened in your present life. In this case Vajra Yogini took the aspect of an ordinary, pitiful woman with leprosy in order to stimulate compassion in the disciple's mind. This compassion quickly purified the heavy negative karma blocking him from seeing Vajra Yogini.

In the case of the great Tibetan yogi, Milarepa, the karmic blocks preventing him to see Vajrayogini were purified by his pure service to his holy guru, Marpa.

It's the same for you. If on the basis of feeling strong compassion you experience depression on behalf of all beings, this meditation of taking and experiencing the suffering for others is a quick path to enlightenment, just like the example of the monk. It's a quick way to achieve enlightenment because experiencing cancer, depression or any suffering for the benefit of living beings is unbelievably purifying.

Suffering from depression can be a good thing because it allows you to easily see the pain of other people. By using your own experience of depression you can clearly feel the unbearable pain of many, many other people. There are so many people who are depressed and many others creating karma for future bouts of depression. Experiencing depression on their behalf might be even more powerful than practising tantra because if tantra isn't done correctly, on the basis of the three principal paths, it's not a quick path to enlightenment.

When feeling depressed you can think, "I'm exhausting so much of my negative karma to have depression that I've accumulated throughout countless past lives". Rejoice! You should feel great joy about finishing the karma instead of seeing the depression as something bad.

As it's said in Guru Puja, living beings and their environments are filled with unbelievable problems and sufferings, coming one after another like rainfall, sufferings that are the results of negative karma. "Please grant me blessings to see my depression as exhausting the results of my negative karmic imprints, and bless me to be able to always transform bad conditions into the path to enlightenment." You can recite mantra while doing this meditation.

For example when you wash a dirty piece of cloth, the water becomes black with dirt. You don't see the black dirt as a negative thing since it means the cloth is getting clean. In the same way, when you practice dharma negative karmas can ripen causing you to get sick because you're purifying so much negative karma by practicing dharma. So you should rejoice when you get depressed!

Depression happens in the first place due to being under the control of the ego, self-cherishing, attachment, anger, broken vows and pledges and having disturbed the minds of holy beings and your spiritual teachers in past lives. This depression is caused by the ego, the self-cherishing attitude and the self-existent "I". So rather than accepting the depression, give it back to the self-cherishing attitude. Use the depression like a bomb to destroy the wrong conception of the I. Then meditate on the emptiness of the self-existent I.

These are some ways to use depression to achieve enlightenment as quickly as possible. By using it to develop compassion and bodhicitta you collect merit as vast as limitless space and purify unbelievable amounts of negative karma. It's being used like a powerful bomb to destroy the wrong conception of the inherently existent I, the thing that caused the depression in the first place. It's the demon that has prevented your enlightenment, your liberation from samsara, all the realizations, and is the door to all your problems.

You can also do some preliminary practices such as Vajrasattva to purify the negative karma that causes depression.

Meditation on Affliction

Assailed by afflictions, we discover Dharma

And find the way to liberation. Thank you, evil forces!

When sorrows invade the mind, we discover Dharma

And find lasting happiness. Thank you, sorrows!

Through harm caused by spirits we discover Dharma

And find fearlessness. Thank you, ghosts and demons!

Through people's hate we discover Dharma

And find benefits and happiness. Thank you, those who hate us!

Through cruel adversity, we discover Dharma

And find the unchanging way. Thank you, adversity!

Through being impelled to by others, we discover Dharma

And find the essential meaning. Thank you, all who drive us on!

We dedicate our merit to you all, to repay your kindness.

Gyalwa Longchenpa, source: SoultoSpirit.com

How meditation on the Buddha can help, by Sogyal Rinpoche in Glimpse of the Day:

"There is a spark of hope, a playful humor about the posture we take in meditation, which lies in the secret understanding that we all have the buddha nature. So when you assume this posture, you are playfully imitating a buddha, acknowledging and giving real encouragement to the emergence of your own buddha nature. You begin to respect yourself as a potential buddha.

At the same time, you still recognize your relative condition. But because you have let yourself be inspired by a joyful trust in your own true buddha nature, you can accept your negative aspects more easily and deal with them more generously and with more humor.

When you meditate, invite yourself to feel the self-esteem, the dignity, and the strong humility of the buddha that you are. If you simply let yourself be inspired by this joyful trust, it is enough: Out of this understanding and confidence, meditation will naturally arise."

A Teaching on Depression (by Ven. Thubten Gyatso)

Depression is a state of extreme unhappiness, described by sufferers in a recent BBC radio program as a black, dismal, dungeon of despair; as a stifling hot room with no means of escape; as a heavy overcoat of pain with the buttons soldered together; and as like walking through treacle. It is characterized by a sense of loss of control over one’s life, a loss of enthusiasm, and the inability to enjoy pleasure. One may know what to do, but cannot summon the energy to do it.

Depression may be precipitated by bereavement, illness, unemployment, and perhaps sometimes a neurological abnormality. According to Buddhism, however, the overriding cause of depression is self-cherishing - seeing one’s own physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody else’s. Self-cherishing is irritability when our spouse asks us to do something that interrupts our own enjoyment, such as watching television, playing sport, or talking with our friends. It is the desire to get the best food for oneself, the best seat in the cinema, the best result in an examination, and the most praise from someone of influence.

How can a small thing such as selfishness, which we all have, be the cause of such a major illness as depression? There are two main reasons. The first is that unhappiness arising from selfishness is cumulative. When we do not obtain what we want, or are stopped from doing what we want, we often over-react to a ridiculous extent. Examine your own experience - how many domestic arguments have exploded out of incredibly petty causes? Even though we chastise ourselves for our stupid behavior, we repeat the same thing again and again. At home, at work, at the club, wherever we go to relax, our selfish behavior isolates us from others. The accumulation of small failures in life erodes our self-confidence, we are unable to be happy, and we spiral into depression.

The second reason why selfishness causes depression is because it prevents us from doing the one thing that is guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others. Self-obsession smothers consideration for the needs of others and we stop giving love. The constant whirl of self-centered thoughts in our heads, “I am so sad, I need to be happy,” blinds us to the needs of our family and friends, and we do nothing to help them. Our self-confidence takes a further battering because we no longer receive the feedback of love from them, or the pure satisfaction and joy of making them happy. The joy of making others happy is pure because we do not crave it again and again, unlike the joy of self-indulgence which is impure because it never brings satisfaction. Cut off from the world, we sink into unhappiness, self-doubt, and the thought that we are going insane. This is depression.

Buddha’s diagnosis of the cause of depression is not petty or discriminative. We all have self-cherishing, and if we allow it to take over our lives and block our love and compassion for others, we will be in danger of following that awful path into depression. Depression does not cause misery, depression is misery, at its worst. In the human realm anyway. Depressives may not believe this, but it can get far worse in other realms of rebirth.

To indicate our own part in the development of depression is not to point the finger of blame and cause guilt. If we can see that the cause is in our own mind, we will understand that the cure is also in our own mind.

Seeing the shattered self-confidence of depressed people, many new-age creeds attempt to cure the problem with the philosophy of “love yourself first.” But this is the cause, not the cure. The great Indian Bodhisattva, Shantideva, said, “If you want to be happy, you should never seek to please yourself.” Instead, we should seek to please others.

If we ask, “But, don’t I have to protect myself from suffering?”

Shantideva replies, “If you wish to be protected, you should constantly protect all others.” Buddha’s prescription for happiness is to forget yourself and love others. The more we look after our family and friends, the more they will care for us. It is so simple, so obvious, but we have to do it. Not just our family and friends; our purpose in life should be to protect every living being from suffering. When this attitude is supported by wisdom, we will never know unhappiness.

Should you flush your Valium and Prozac down the toilet? No, not yet. Begin with small actions to help others - empty the garbage can without being asked, clean up your own mess in the kitchen, polish the shoes of others. Smile occasionally.

Gradually build up the courage and determination to confront your self-cherishing mind and declare yourself a slave and friend of all living beings. Then you will extract more joy from cleaning up somebody else’s mess in the kitchen than you will ever get from watching the football on television. Not only will this lift your depression, it will place you on the path to bliss.

Source: http://viewonbuddhism.org/depression.html

Theories on Morality of Suicide (Part 1: Ancient and Classic Approaches)

Moral Permissibility

The principal moral issue surrounding suicide has been

1. Are there conditions under which suicide is morally justified, and if so, which conditions?

Several important historical answers to (1) have already been mentioned.

Note that this question should be distinguished from three others:

1. Should other individuals attempt to prevent suicide?


2. Should the state criminalize suicide or attempt to prevent it?


3. Is suicide ever rational or prudent?

Obviously, answers to any one of these four questions will bear on how the other three ought to be answered. For instance, it might be assumed that if suicide is morally permissible in some circumstances, then neither other individuals nor the state should interfere with suicidal behavior (in those same circumstances). However, this conclusion might not follow if those same suicidal individuals are irrational and interference is required in order to prevent them from taking their lives, an outcome their more rational selves might regret. Furthermore, for those moral theories that emphasize rational autonomy, whether an individual has rationally chosen to take her own life may settle all four questions. In any event, the interrelationships among suicide's moral permissibility, its rationality, and the duties of others and of society as a whole is complex, and we should be wary of assuming that an answer to any one of these four questions decisively settles the other three.

Classic Theories on the Morality of Suicide

Although many applied ethics issues emerged only recently, the issue of the moral permissibility of suicide has a long history of philosophical discussion. Plato opposed suicide since it "frustrates the decree of destiny"; he also argued that "the gods are our guardians, and that we are a possession of theirs. ... Then there may be reason in saying that a man should wait, and not take his own life until God summons him, as he is now summoning me".

Aristotle also opposed suicide since it is "contrary to the rule of life". Later Greek and Roman philosophers approved of suicide as a means of ending suffering. For example, the Roman philosopher Seneca (4 BCE - 65 CE) condones suicide in cases in which age takes its toll on us and prevents us from living as we should:

“I will not relinquish old age if it leaves my better part intact. But if it begins to shake my mind, if it destroys my faculties one by one, if it leaves me not life but breath, I will depart from the putrid or the tottering edifice. If I know that I must suffer without hope of relief I will depart not through fear of the pain itself but because it prevents all for which I should live”.

Stoic philosopher Epictetus (60 CE - 120 CE) also endorses suicide. The principal moral theme of Stoic philosophy is that we should resign ourselves to whatever fate has in store for us. Epictetus suggests that, for some of us, there may be limits to what we can endure in this life and, so, when things get too intolerable, we may wish to end our lives.

He describes our options poetically:

“... Above all, remember that the door stands open. Do not be more fearful than children. But, just as when they are tired of the game they cry, "I will play no more," so too when you are in a similar situation, cry, "I will play no more" and depart. But if you stay, do not cry.

... Is there smoke in the room? If it is slight, I remain. If it is grievous, I quit it. For you must remember this and hold it fast, that the door stands open.”

Attitudes about suicide changed in the writings of Christian philosophers. In The City of God, Augustine (354-430) opposes suicide on the grounds that it violates the commandment "thou shalt not kill."

Although Augustine notes some exceptions to this rule, such as divinely ordained wars or government sanctioned executions, self-killing is not is not an exception since it lacks any parallel justification. It is not justified because of personal suffering, fear of possible punishment, or even on more lofty grounds such as high-mindedness. For Augustine, the more high-minded person is the one who faces life's ills, rather than escapes them.

In Summa Theologica, Thomas Aquinas gives three arguments against the permissibility of suicide. The first argument is based on natural law, or the natural purpose of a thing: suicide is wrong since it is contrary to the natural life asserting purpose of humans.

Aquinas's second argument against suicide is a utilitarian type argument: suicide is not justified because of the greater social harm that is done. Aquinas's third argument is that suicide is wrong since it is like stealing from God. Our lives are property that is owned by God, and we are merely the trustees of that property.

Renaissance and modern philosophers such as Montaigne, Montesquieu, and Voltaire wrote in favor of suicide, opposing the medieval arguments of divine providence.

David Hume gives one of the most famous philosophical defenses of suicide from this period in his essay "Of Suicide." The essay was printed for publication in 1757 in a collection of five dissertations, but, for reasons of political pressure, Hume pulled dropped the essay on suicide. The work eventually appeared in 1783, seven years after Hume's death. In this essay, Hume approaches the question of suicide from the standpoint of the traditional duty-based ethics championed by Grotius and Pufendorf.

If suicide is immoral, then it must violate some duty to God, self, or others. Hume systematically goes through each of these possibilities and concludes that we have no such duty. The bulk of his argument focuses on whether suicide violates duties to God.

We can reconstruct Hume's main argument against such a duty as follows:

There is a self-rule established by God in two forces of nature (i.e., physical laws of the natural world, and purposeful action of the animal world)

As a rule, God has given humans the liberty to alter nature for their own happiness

Suicide is an instance of altering the course of nature for our own happiness

There is no good reason this instance should be an exception to the rule

Therefore, suicide does not violate God's plan

Much of Hume's argument focuses on premise four. One possible criticism to premise four is that human life is uniquely important. In response, Hume argues that in the larger scheme of things our lives are of no greater importance than that of an oyster. Hume also considers the criticism that it is up to God to determine when someone should die.

In response, Hume contends that if determining the time of death is entirely up to God, then it would also be wrong to lengthen our lives, such as through medicine. Another possible criticism is that suicide interferes with the natural order of things that God ordains. We build artificial shelters to protect ourselves from harsh weather conditions, we artificially irrigate barren land and we construct artificial means of transportation.

Clearly, we interfere with the natural causal order all the time. For Hume, arguments from providence fails because there is no relevant difference between, say, diverting the Nile river from its natural course and taking one's life by diverting blood from its normal channel. Hume also argues that when life becomes so unbearable, an all good God would not prevent us from ending our miseries through suicide.

Concerning whether suicide violates our duty to others, Hume offers a series of arguments, such as the following argument from social reciprocity:

When we die, we do not harm society, but only cease to do good

Our responsibility to do good is reciprocally related to benefit we receive from society

When I am dead, I can no longer receive the benefits

Therefore, I do not have a duty to do good

He also argues that I am not obliged to do a small good for society at the expense of a great harm to myself.

Using consequentialist reasoning, Hume argues further that if my continued existence is a burden on society, then suicide is permissible. For Hume, most people who kill themselves in such situation.

According to Alan Donagan, if Hume were pushed to his logical conclusion, utilitarianism would require social indigents to kill themselves. And this, Donagan believes, is a decisive refutation of Hume's utilitarian defense of suicide, since requiring suicide is a clear violation of the principle of autonomy.

Tom Beauchamp defends Hume against Donagan's charge by arguing that (a) Hume is a rule utilitarian, and (b) in normal circumstances, no rule requiring suicide could be established which would produce more good than harm for society.

Finally, concerning whether suicide violates a duty to oneself, Hume argues that all suicides have been done for good personal reasons. This is evident since we have such a strong natural fear of death, which requires an equally strong motive to overcome that fear.

In his essay "Suicide," Immanuel Kant argues that suicide is wrong because it degrades our inner worth below that of animals. Kant considers two common justifications of suicide, and rejects them both. First, some may argue that suicide is permissible as a matter of freedom, so long as it does not violate the rights of others.

In response Kant says self-preservation is our highest duty to ourselves and we may treat our body as we please, so long as our actions arise from motives of self-preservation. Some also might give examples from history that imply that suicide is sometimes virtuous.

For example, in Roman history, Cato, who was a symbol of resistance against Caesar, found he could no longer resist Caesar; to continue living a compromised life would disillusion advocates of freedom. Kant argues that this is the only example of this sort and thus cannot be used as a general rule in defense of suicide.

Kant's main argument against suicide is that people are entrusted with their lives, which have a uniquely inherent value. By killing oneself, a person dispenses with his humanity and makes himself into a thing to be treated like a beast. Kant also argues on more consequentialist grounds that if a person is capable of suicide, then he is capable of any crime. For Kant, "he who does not respect his life even in principle cannot be restrained from the most dreadful vices."

Sources and Additional Information:

http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/suicide.htm

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/suicide/